start-ver=1.4 cd-journal=joma no-vol=5 cd-vols= no-issue= article-no= start-page=0073 end-page= dt-received= dt-revised= dt-accepted= dt-pub-year=2023 dt-pub=20230728 dt-online= en-article= kn-article= en-subject= kn-subject= en-title= kn-title=Deep Learning Enables Instant and Versatile Estimation of Rice Yield Using Ground-Based RGB Images en-subtitle= kn-subtitle= en-abstract= kn-abstract=Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important cereals, which provides 20% of the world’s food energy. However, its productivity is poorly assessed especially in the global South. Here, we provide a first study to perform a deep-learning-based approach for instantaneously estimating rice yield using red-green-blue images. During ripening stage and at harvest, over 22,000 digital images were captured vertically downward over the rice canopy from a distance of 0.8 to 0.9 m at 4,820 harvesting plots having the yield of 0.1 to 16.1 t·ha−1 across 6 countries in Africa and Japan. A convolutional neural network applied to these data at harvest predicted 68% variation in yield with a relative root mean square error of 0.22. The developed model successfully detected genotypic difference and impact of agronomic interventions on yield in the independent dataset. The model also demonstrated robustness against the images acquired at different shooting angles up to 30° from right angle, diverse light environments, and shooting date during late ripening stage. Even when the resolution of images was reduced (from 0.2 to 3.2 cm·pixel−1 of ground sampling distance), the model could predict 57% variation in yield, implying that this approach can be scaled by the use of unmanned aerial vehicles. Our work offers low-cost, hands-on, and rapid approach for high-throughput phenotyping and can lead to impact assessment of productivity-enhancing interventions, detection of fields where these are needed to sustainably increase crop production, and yield forecast at several weeks before harvesting. en-copyright= kn-copyright= en-aut-name=TanakaYu en-aut-sei=Tanaka en-aut-mei=Yu kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=1 ORCID= en-aut-name=WatanabeTomoya en-aut-sei=Watanabe en-aut-mei=Tomoya kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=2 ORCID= en-aut-name=KatsuraKeisuke en-aut-sei=Katsura en-aut-mei=Keisuke kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=3 ORCID= en-aut-name=TsujimotoYasuhiro en-aut-sei=Tsujimoto en-aut-mei=Yasuhiro kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=4 ORCID= en-aut-name=TakaiToshiyuki en-aut-sei=Takai en-aut-mei=Toshiyuki kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=5 ORCID= en-aut-name=TanakaTakashi Sonam Tashi en-aut-sei=Tanaka en-aut-mei=Takashi Sonam Tashi kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=6 ORCID= en-aut-name=KawamuraKensuke en-aut-sei=Kawamura en-aut-mei=Kensuke kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=7 ORCID= en-aut-name=SaitoHiroki en-aut-sei=Saito en-aut-mei=Hiroki kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=8 ORCID= en-aut-name=HommaKoki en-aut-sei=Homma en-aut-mei=Koki kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=9 ORCID= en-aut-name=MairouaSalifou Goube en-aut-sei=Mairoua en-aut-mei=Salifou Goube kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=10 ORCID= en-aut-name=AhouantonKokou en-aut-sei=Ahouanton en-aut-mei=Kokou kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=11 ORCID= en-aut-name=IbrahimAli en-aut-sei=Ibrahim en-aut-mei=Ali kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=12 ORCID= en-aut-name=SenthilkumarKalimuthu en-aut-sei=Senthilkumar en-aut-mei=Kalimuthu kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=13 ORCID= en-aut-name=SemwalVimal Kumar en-aut-sei=Semwal en-aut-mei=Vimal Kumar kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=14 ORCID= en-aut-name=MatuteEduardo Jose Graterol en-aut-sei=Matute en-aut-mei=Eduardo Jose Graterol kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=15 ORCID= en-aut-name=CorredorEdgar en-aut-sei=Corredor en-aut-mei=Edgar kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=16 ORCID= en-aut-name=El-NamakyRaafat en-aut-sei=El-Namaky en-aut-mei=Raafat kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=17 ORCID= en-aut-name=ManigbasNorvie en-aut-sei=Manigbas en-aut-mei=Norvie kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=18 ORCID= en-aut-name=QuilangEduardo Jimmy P. en-aut-sei=Quilang en-aut-mei=Eduardo Jimmy P. kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=19 ORCID= en-aut-name=IwahashiYu en-aut-sei=Iwahashi en-aut-mei=Yu kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=20 ORCID= en-aut-name=NakajimaKota en-aut-sei=Nakajima en-aut-mei=Kota kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=21 ORCID= en-aut-name=TakeuchiEisuke en-aut-sei=Takeuchi en-aut-mei=Eisuke kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=22 ORCID= en-aut-name=SaitoKazuki en-aut-sei=Saito en-aut-mei=Kazuki kn-aut-name= kn-aut-sei= kn-aut-mei= aut-affil-num=23 ORCID= affil-num=1 en-affil=Graduate School of Environmental, Life, Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University kn-affil= affil-num=2 en-affil=Graduate School of Mathematics, Kyushu University kn-affil= affil-num=3 en-affil=Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology kn-affil= affil-num=4 en-affil=Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences kn-affil= affil-num=5 en-affil=Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences kn-affil= affil-num=6 en-affil=Graduate School of Environmental, Life, Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University kn-affil= affil-num=7 en-affil=Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences kn-affil= affil-num=8 en-affil=Tropical Agriculture Research Front, Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences kn-affil= affil-num=9 en-affil=Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University kn-affil= affil-num=10 en-affil=Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) kn-affil= affil-num=11 en-affil=Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) kn-affil= affil-num=12 en-affil=Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), Regional Station for the Sahel kn-affil= affil-num=13 en-affil=Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) kn-affil= affil-num=14 en-affil=Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), Nigeria Station kn-affil= affil-num=15 en-affil=Latin American Fund for Irrigated Rice - The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT kn-affil= affil-num=16 en-affil=Latin American Fund for Irrigated Rice - The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT kn-affil= affil-num=17 en-affil=Rice Research and Training Center, Field Crops Research Institute, ARC kn-affil= affil-num=18 en-affil=Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) kn-affil= affil-num=19 en-affil=Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) kn-affil= affil-num=20 en-affil=Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University kn-affil= affil-num=21 en-affil=Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University kn-affil= affil-num=22 en-affil=Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University kn-affil= affil-num=23 en-affil=Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University kn-affil= END